natostratcon.info – The period following the Civil War, known as Reconstruction, was a time of immense challenges for the United States. The Southern states, which had been torn apart by the conflict, needed to be reintegrated into the Union, and the newly freed African American population required legal and social integration into American society. Andrew Johnson, who became the 17th president of the United States after Abraham Lincoln’s assassination, faced the monumental task of rebuilding the South. However, his policies and approach to Reconstruction would go down in history as controversial and divisive.
Johnson’s vision for rebuilding the South was fundamentally shaped by his belief in states’ rights and his conviction that the South had never truly left the Union. His lenient approach to Reconstruction led to an explosive conflict with Congress, particularly the Radical Republicans, who believed that a much stronger and more transformative approach was necessary to address the South’s reentry and the future of freedmen.
In this article, we will explore Andrew Johnson’s Reconstruction policies, examining his approach to Southern reintegration, his lenient terms for former Confederates, the social and political challenges he faced, and the long-term impact of his policies on the nation.
Andrew Johnson’s Vision for Reconstruction
A Southern Unionist
Born in the South, Andrew Johnson held complex views on the Union and the South. Throughout his career, he was fiercely loyal to the United States and opposed the secession of the Southern states. As a representative from Tennessee, Johnson spoke out against the Confederacy, and when the Civil War broke out, he was one of the few Southern politicians to support the Union cause. His commitment to the Union was a defining feature of his career, and this loyalty led to his appointment as Military Governor of Tennessee during the Civil War.
When Lincoln selected him as vice president in 1864, the choice was strategic. Johnson was a Southern Unionist, and Lincoln hoped his selection would appeal to Union sympathizers in the South, thereby strengthening the national resolve in the final years of the war. However, Johnson’s beliefs about how to restore the South after the war were at odds with those of many in the Republican Party, especially the Radical Republicans.
Lenient Reconstruction Policies
Upon assuming the presidency after Lincoln’s assassination, Johnson inherited a divided and devastated nation. His policies, which he believed would promote healing, focused on a rapid and relatively easy reintegration of the Southern states. Johnson’s primary belief was that the Southern states had never legally left the Union, and as such, they were entitled to resume their positions in the Union without facing severe consequences.
In May 1865, Johnson issued a Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction, offering a pardon to all white Southerners (except for high-ranking Confederate officials and wealthy landowners) who took an oath of allegiance to the Union. In addition, Southern states were required to repudiate secession, accept the abolition of slavery, and ratify the Thirteenth Amendment (which abolished slavery) to regain representation in Congress.
Restoring Southern Leadership
Under Johnson’s plan, the former Confederate states were allowed to set up new governments, with relatively few restrictions placed on them. The Southern states were encouraged to hold constitutional conventions, but these conventions were primarily composed of former Confederate leaders and other white Southerners. As a result, Johnson’s policies quickly allowed the Southern states to reassert control over their political systems and create governments that were largely dominated by former Confederates.
This approach to reconstruction led to a rapid reintegration of the South, but it also sparked significant backlash from both African Americans and the Radical Republicans in Congress. Many of these leaders feared that by allowing former Confederate leaders to return to power, the country would fail to address the root causes of the war, and the newly freed slaves would not receive the protections they deserved.
The Rise of the Black Codes
Southern Resistance to Change
One of the most controversial aspects of Johnson’s Reconstruction policies was the Black Codes. After the Southern states were readmitted to the Union, many of them passed these laws, which severely restricted the rights and freedoms of African Americans. The Black Codes were designed to maintain white supremacy and limit the social and economic mobility of freedmen.
The codes varied from state to state but commonly included provisions that forced African Americans to sign labor contracts with white landowners, prohibited them from owning property or carrying firearms, and restricted their movement. The Black Codes were essentially a system of racial control that sought to maintain the social order of the pre-Civil War South.
Johnson, however, did little to combat these laws. Despite the fact that the Black Codes undermined the fundamental ideals of freedom and equality, Johnson’s administration failed to intervene or challenge these policies. This reluctance to act on behalf of African Americans became one of the main sources of conflict between Johnson and Congress.
Radical Republican Opposition
The Radical Republicans in Congress were horrified by the rise of the Black Codes and the leniency of Johnson’s policies. These Republicans, led by figures such as Thaddeus Stevens, Charles Sumner, and Benjamin Wade, believed that the Southern states needed to be reconstructed from the ground up. They wanted to ensure that African Americans were granted full civil rights, including the right to vote, and that the Southern states could not simply return to the old ways of racial segregation and oppression.
In response to Johnson’s failure to address the Black Codes, the Radical Republicans passed a series of laws aimed at securing the rights of African Americans and ensuring the federal government had the authority to oversee Reconstruction. These included the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which granted citizenship to African Americans, and the Freedmen’s Bureau Act, which extended the powers of the Freedmen’s Bureau to assist former slaves in their transition to freedom.
Johnson, however, vetoed both pieces of legislation. His vetoes were overridden by Congress, which marked the beginning of an intense political struggle between the president and the legislative branch. As the relationship between Johnson and Congress deteriorated, the conflict over Reconstruction policies escalated.
The Impeachment Crisis
A Bitter Struggle for Control of Reconstruction
The conflict between Johnson and the Radical Republicans reached its peak with the Tenure of Office Act, which Congress passed in 1867. The act was designed to prevent the president from removing certain officeholders without the approval of the Senate. Johnson, who sought to remove Edwin M. Stanton, his Secretary of War, because Stanton was sympathetic to the Radicals, violated the Tenure of Office Act by dismissing him without Senate approval.
In response, the House of Representatives passed articles of impeachment against Johnson, accusing him of violating the Constitution and the Tenure of Office Act. Johnson was impeached in 1868, becoming the first president in U.S. history to face impeachment. However, the Senate narrowly acquitted him, and Johnson remained in office, though his authority was significantly diminished.
The impeachment process was part of the larger struggle between the presidency and Congress over control of Reconstruction. Although Johnson survived the impeachment, the Radical Republicans had already secured many of their goals, including the Fourteenth Amendment and the Military Reconstruction Act, which placed the South under military rule.
The Legacy of Andrew Johnson’s Reconstruction Policies
Mixed Results and Lasting Consequences
Andrew Johnson’s approach to Reconstruction had mixed results and a long-lasting impact on the nation. On one hand, Johnson succeeded in quickly restoring the Southern states to the Union and preventing the wholesale punishment of the South’s leadership. However, his failure to advocate for the civil rights of African Americans and his acquiescence to the Black Codes allowed racial inequality to persist in the South.
While Johnson’s policies were aimed at promoting national unity, they also left the newly freed slaves vulnerable to discrimination and exploitation. The Southern states, under Johnson’s lenient terms, were able to pass laws that severely restricted the freedoms of African Americans, effectively nullifying many of the gains made by the Civil War.
In the long term, Johnson’s presidency set the stage for the Reconstruction Acts passed by Congress and the eventual rise of Jim Crow laws in the South. Though Johnson’s vision of a rapid return to normalcy was not fully realized, his presidency marked the beginning of a prolonged struggle over the future of the South and the rights of African Americans.
Conclusion
Andrew Johnson’s Reconstruction policies were shaped by his deep belief in states’ rights and his commitment to quickly reintegrating the Southern states into the Union. However, his lenient approach to the South and his failure to protect the civil rights of African Americans led to a significant conflict with Congress and the Radical Republicans. The political battles of this period, along with Johnson’s impeachment, left a complex and controversial legacy. Ultimately, Johnson’s policies fell short of achieving lasting change, and the struggle for equality and civil rights in the South would continue for many more years.